Referencias

1. Cade JFJ. Lithium salts in the treatment of psychotic excitement. Med J Austr 1949;36:349-52.
2. Smith DF. Strategies in behavioral research on affective disorders: principles, problems and pitfalls. Pharmacol Toxicol 1990;66 Suppl. III:139-43.
3. Manji HK, Potter WZ, Lenox RH. Signal transduction pathways: molecular targets for lithium`s actions. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1995;52:531-43.
4. Lenox RH, McNamara RK, Papke RL, Manji HK. Neurobiology of lithium: An update. J Clin Psychiatry 1998;59(6):37-47.
5. Schildkaut JJ. The catecholamine hypothesis of affective disorders: a review of supporting evidence. Am J Psychiatry 1965;122:509-22.
6. Bunney WE, Davis J. Norepinephrine in depressive reactions: a review. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1965;13:483-94.
7. Coppen A. The biochemistry of affective disorders. Br J Psychiatry 1967;113:1237-64.
8. Sulser F, Vetulani J, Mobley P. Mode of action of antidepressant drugs. Biochem Pharmacol 1978;27:257-61.
9. Paykel ES, Fleminger R, Watson JP. Psychiatric side effects of antihypertensive drugs other than reserpine. J Clin Psychopharmacol 1982;2:14-39.
10. Blier P, de Montigny C. Current advances and trends in the treatment of depression. Trends Pharmacol Sci 1994;15:220-6.
11. Duman RS, Heninger GR, Nestler EJ. A molecular and cellular theory of depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1997;54:597-606.
12. Waldmeier PE. Mechanisms of action of lithium in afective disorders: a status report. Pharmacol Toxicol 1990; 66 Suppl. III: 121-32.
13. Manji HK, Lenox RH. Lithium: a molecular traducer of mood-stabilization in the treatment of bipolar disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology 1998;19:161-8.
14. Daniel PB, Walker WH, Habener JF. Cyclic AMP signaling and gene regulation. Annu Rev Nutr 1998;18:353-83.
15. Birnbaumer LG. Proteins in signal transduction. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol 1990;30:675-705.
16. Nestler EJ, Duman RS. G proteins and cyclic nucleotides. En: Siegel GJ et al. Basic Neurochemistry: Molecular, cellular and medical aspects. 5ª ed. Ed. New York: Raven Press; 1994. p. 429-48.
17. Rasenick MM, Chaney KA, Chen J. G protein-mediated signal transduction as a target of antidepressant and antibipolar drug action: evidence from model systems. J Clin Psychiatry 1996;57:49-55.
18. Lesch KP, Aulakh CS, Tolliver TJ, et al. Regulation of G proteins by chronic antidepressant drugs in rat brain: tricyclics but not chorgyline increase Goa subunits. Eur J Pharmacol Mol Sect 1991;207:361-4.
19. Li PP, Tam YK, Young LT, et al. Lithium decreases Gs, Gil and G12alfa-subunit mRNA levels in rat cortex. Eur J Pharmacol 1991;206:165-6.
20. Masana MI, Bitran JA, Hsiao JK et al. In vivo evidence that lithium inactivates Gi modulation of adenylate cyclase in brain. J Neurochem 1992;59:200-5.
21. Hsiao JK, Colison J, Bartko JJ et al. Monoamine neurotransmitter interactions in drug free and neuroleptic treated schizophrenics. Arch Gen Psychiatry 1993;50:606-14.
22. Colin SF, Chang HC, Mollner et al. Chronic lithium regulates the expressions of adenylate cyclase and Gi-protein alfa subunit in rat cerebral cortex. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1991;88:10634-7.
23. Manji HK, Bersudsky U, Chen G et al. Modulation of PKC isozymes and substrates by lithium: the role of myo-inositol. Neuropharmacology 1996;15:370-81.
24. Nestler EJ, Terwilliger RZ, Duman RS. Regulation of endogenous rybosilation by acute and chronic lithium in rat brain. J Neurochem 1995;64:2319-24.
25. Bourin M, Baker GB. Do G proteins have a role in antidepressant actions?. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 1996;6:49-53.
26. Forn J, Valdecasas FG. Effects of lithium on brain adenyl cyclase activity. Biochem. Pharmacol 1971;20:2773-999.
27. Belmaker RH, Korn M, Ebstein RP, Dasberg H. Partial inhibition by lithium of the epinephrine-stimulated rise in plasma cyclic GMP in humans. Biol Psychiatry 1980;15:3-8.
28. Ebstein RP, Moskovich D, Zeevi S et al. Effect of lithium in vitro and after chronic treatment on human platelet adenylate cyclase activity: postreceptor modification of second messenger signal amplification. Psychiatry Res 1987;21:221-8.
29. Mork A, Geisler A. The effectos of lithium in vitro and ex vivo on adenylate cyclase in brain are exerted by distinct mechanisms. Neuropharmacology 1989;28:307-11.
30. Mork A, Geisler A, Hollund P. Effects of lithium on second messenger systems in the brain. Pharmacol Toxicol 1992;71:4-17.
31. Chen G, Pan B, Hawver DB et al. Attenuation of cyclic AMP production by carbamazepine. J Neurochem 1996;67:2079-87.
32. Brunello N, Racagni G. Rationale for the development of noradrenaline reuptake inhibitors. Hum Psychopharmacol 1998;13:S13-S19.
33. Newman ME, Lerer B, Shapira B. 5-HT1A receptor-mediated effects of antidepressants. Prog Neuro-Psychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 1993;17:1-8.
34. Nestler EJ, Greengard P. Protein phosphorylation and the regulation of neuronal function. En: Siegel GJ. Basic Neurochemistry: Molecular, cellular and medical aspects. 5ª ed. Ed. New York: Raven Press; 1994. p. 449-474.
35. Mori S, Tardito D, Dorigo A et al. Effects of lithium on cAMP dependent protein kinase in rat brain. Neuropsychopharmacology 1998;19:233-40.
36. Nestler EJ, Terwilliger RZ, Duman RS. Chronic antidepressant administration alters the subcellular distribution of cyclic AMP dependent protein kinase in rat frontal cortex. J Neurochem 1989;53:1644-7.
37. Brunello N, Perez J, Tinelli D, et al. Biochemical and molecular changes in rat cerebral cortex after chronic antidepressant treatment. Pharmacol Toxicol 1990;66:112-20.
38. Pérez J, Tinelli D, Bianchi E, et al. Cyclic AMP binding proteins in the rat cortical cortex after administration selective 5-HT and NE reuptake blockers with antidepressant activity. Neuropsychopharmacology 1994;41:57-64.
39. Tanaka C, Nishizuka Y. The protein kinase C family for neuronal signaling. Annu Rev Neurosci 1994;17:551-67.
40. Manji HK, Etcheberrigaray R, Chen G et al. Lithium dramatically decreases membrane associated PKC in the hippocampus: selectivity for the alfa isozyme. J Neurochem 1993;61:3203-10.
41. Leli U, Hauser G. Lithium modifies diacylglycerol levels and protein kinase C in neuroblastoma cells. En: Abstracts of the 8th Int Conference on second messengers and phosphoproteins. August 3-6, 1992. Glasgow. Scotland.
42. Li X, Jope RS. Selective inhibition of the expresion of signal transduction proteins by lithium in nerve growth factor-differentiated PC12 cells. J Neurochem 1995;65:2500-8.
43. Chen G, Manji HK, Hawker DB et al. Chronic sodium valproate selectively decreases protein kinase C alfa and epsilon in vitro. J Neurochem 1994;63:2361-4.
44. Lenox RH, McNamara RK, Watterson M et al. Myristolated alanine rich C kinase substrate (MARCKS): A molecular target for the therapeutic action of mood stabilizers in the brain. J Clin Psychiatry 1996;57:23-31.
45. Watson DG, Lenox RH. Chronic lithium induced down-regulation of MARCKS in inmotrtalized hippocampal cells: Potentiation by muscarinic receptor activation. J Neurochem 1996;67:767-77.
46. Aderem A. The MARCKS brothers: a family of protein kinase C substrates. Cell 1992;71:713-6.
47. Mann CD, Bich T, Hrdina PD. Protein kinase C in rat brain cortex and bippocampus: effect of repeated administration of fluoxetine and desipramine. Br J Pharmacol 1995;115:595-600.
48. Marco-Igual M. El largo camino de la neurotransmisión. Los terceros mensajeros y otros factores de transcripción en el sistema nervioso (I). Aspectos moleculares y fisiológicos básicos. Med Clin 1998;111:31-43.
49. Meyer TE, Habener JF. Cyclic adenosine 3’5’-monophosphate response element-binding protein (CREB) and related transcription-activating deoxyribonucleic acid-binding proteins. Endocr Rev 1993;14:269-90.
50. Ghosh A, Greenberg ME. Calcium signaling in neurons: molecular mechanisms and cellular consequences. Science 1995;268:239-47.
51. Nibuya M, Nestler EJ, Duman RS. Chronic antidepressant administration increases the expression of cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) in rat hippocampus. J Neurosci 1996;16:2365-72.
52. Dahmen N, Fehr Ch, Reuss S, Hiemke Ch. Stimulation of inmmediate early gene expression by desipramine in rat brain. Biol Psychiatry 1997;42:317-23.
53. Morinobu S, Nibuya M, Duman RS. Chronic antidepressant treatment down-regulates the induction of c-fos mRNA in response to acute stress in rat frontal cortex. Neuropsychopharmacology 1995;12:221-8.
54. Hunter T, Karin M. The regulation of transcription by phosphorilization. Cell 1992;70:375-87.
55. Divish MM, Sheffel G, Boyle A et al. Differential effect of lithium on fos protooncogene expression mediated by receptor and postreceptor activators of protein kinase C and cyclic adenosine monophosphate: model for its antimanic action. J Neurosci Res 1991;28:40-8.
56. Manji HK, Lenox RH. Long term action of lithium: a role for transcriptional and posttranscriptional factors regulated by protein kinase C. Synapse 1994; 16:11-28.
57. Miller JC, Mathe AA. Basal and stimulated c-fos mRNA expression in the rat brain: effect of chronic dietary lithium. Neuropsychiopharmacology 1997;16:408-18.
58. Gao XM, Fukamauchi F, Chuang DM. Long term biphasic effects of lithium treatment on phospholipase –coupled M3-muscarinic acetylcholine receptors in cultured cerebellar granule cells. Neurochem Int 1993;22:395-403.
59. Sivam SP, Strunk C, Smith DR, Hong JS. Proenkephalin-A gene regulation in the rat striatum: Influence of lithium and haloperidol. Mol Pharmacol 1986;30:186-91.
60. Sivam SP, Takeuchi K, Li S et al. Lithium increases dynorphin A(1-8) and prodynorphin mRNA levels in the basal ganglia of rats. Brain Res 1988;427:155-63.
61. Sivam SP, Krause JE, Takeuchi K et al. Lithium increases rat striatal beta and gamma preprotachykinin messenger RNAs. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 1989;248:1297-301.
62. Weiner ED, Mallat AM, Papolos DF, Lachman HM. Acute lithium treatment enhances neuropeptide Y genes expression. Mol Brain Res 1992;12:209-14.
63. Kislaukis E, Dobnmer P. Mutually dependent response elements in the cis-regulatory region of the neurotensin/neurmedin N gene integrate environemental stimuli in PC12 cells. Neuron 1990;4:783-95.
64. Zachrisson O, Mathe AA, Stenfors C et al. Regional specific effects of chronic lithium on asministration on neuropeptide Y and somatostatin mRNA expresion in the rat brain. Neurosci Letter 1995;194:89-92.
65. Pfeiffer A, Veilleux S, Barden N. Antidepressant and other centrally acting drugs regulate glucocorticoid receptor messenger RNA levels in rat brain. Psychoneuroendocrinology 1991;16:505-15.
66. Ozaki N, Chuang DM. Lithium increases transcription factor binding to AP-1 and cyclic AMP-responsive element in cultured neurons and rat brain. J Neurochem 1997;69:2336-44.
67. Chen G, Yuan P, Waywer DB et al. Increase in AP-1 transcription factor DNA binding activity by valproic acid. Neuropsychopharmacology 1997;16:238-45.
68. Unlap MT, Jope RS. Lithium attenuates nerve growth factor-induced activation of AP-1 DNA binding activity in PC12 cells. Neuropsychopharmacology 1997;17:12-7.
69. Dubovsky SL. Calcium channel antagonists as novel agents for manic depressive dissorder. En: Nemeroff C, Schatzberg S. American Psychiatry Textbook of Psychopharmacology. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press; 1995. p. 377-390.
70. Hokin NM, Jefferson JW. Erythrocyte sodium pump activity in bipolar affective disorder and other psychiatric disorders. Neuropsychobiology 1989;22:1-7.
71. Hokin NM, Jefferson JW. Deficient erythrocyte Na,K-ATPase activity in different affective states in bipolar affective disorder and normalization by lithium therapy. Neuropsychobiology 1989;22:18-25.
72. Li R, El Mallakh RS, Harrison L et al. Lithium prevents ouabain induced behavioral changes: Toward an animal model for manic depression. Mol Chem Neuropathol 1997;31:65-72.
73. El-Mallakh RS, Wyatt RJ. The Na,K-ATPase hypothesis for bipolar illness. Biol Psychiatry 1995;37:235-44.
74. Arystarkhoua E, Sweadner KJ. Isoform-specific monoclonal antibodies to Na,K-ATPase alfa subunits: evidence for a tissue-specific post-translational modification of the alfa subunit. J Biol Chem, 1996;271:23407-17.
75. Lecuona E, Luquin S, Avila J et al. Expressions of the Beta-1 and beta-2 (AMOG) subunits of the Na, K-ATPase in neural tissues: cellular and developmental distribucion patterns. Brain Res Bull 1996;40:167-74.
76. Malick N, Canfield VA, Beckers MC et al. Identification of mammalian Na,K-ATPase subunit. J Biol Chem 1996;271:22574-8.
77. Vadnal R, Parthasarathy L, Parthasarathy R. Role of inositol in the treatment of psychiatric disorders. Basic and clinical aspects. CNS Drugs 1997;7:6-16.
78. Agranoff BW, Fisher SK. Phosphoinositides. En: Siegel GJ. Basic Neurochemistry: Molecular, cellular and medical aspects. 5ª ed. New York: Raven Press; 1994. p. 417-28.
79. Hallcher LM, Sherman WR. The effects of the lithium ion and other agents on the activity of myo-inositol 1-phosphatase from bovine brain. J Biol Chem 1980;255:10896-901.
80. Parthasarathy L, Vadnal RE, Ramesh TG et al. Myo-inositol monophosphatase from rats testes: purification and properties. Arch Biochem Biophys 1993;304:94-101.
81. Allison JH, Stewart MA. Reduced brain inositol in lithium treated rats. Nature New Biol 1971;233:267-8.
82. Nahorski SR, Ragan CI, Challis RAJ. Lithium and the phosphoinositide cycle: an example of uncompetitive inhibition and its pharmacological consequences. Trends Pharmacol Sci 1991;12:297-303.
83. Berridge MJ, Downes CP, Hanley MR. Lithium amplifies agonist dependent phosphatidylinostol responses in brain and salivary glands. Biochem J 1982;206:587-95.
84. Belmaker RH, Bersudsky Y, Agam G et al. How does lithium work on manic depression? Clinical and psychological correlates of the inositol theory. Annu Rev Med 1996;47:47-56.
85. Lubrich B, Patishi Y, Kofman O et al. Lithium induced inositol depletion in rat brain after chronic treatment is restricted to the hypothalamus. Mol Psychiatry 1997;2:407-12.
86. Belmaker RH, Agam G, Calker D et al. Behavioral reversal of lithium effects by four inositol isomers correlates perfectly with biochemical effects on the PI cycle: Depletion by chronic lithium of brain inositol is specific to hypothalamus and inositol levels may be abnormal in potmorten brain from bipolar patients. Neuropsychopharmacology 1998;19:220-32.
87. Moore GJ, Bebchuck JM, Manji HK. Proton MRS in manic depressive illness: monitoring of lithium induced modulation of brain myo-inositol. Society of Neuroscience 1997;23:335-6.
88. Siuciak JA, Lewis D Wiegand SJ. Lindsay RM. Antidepressant-like effect of brain-derived neurotrophic factor. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 1996;56:131-7.
89. Ghosh A, Carnahan J, Greenberg ME. Requirement for BDNF in activity-dependent survival of cortical neurons. Science 1994;263:1618-23.
90. Condorelli DF, Dell’Albani P, Mudo G, et al. Expression of neurotrophins and their receptors in primary astroglial cultures: induction by cAMP-elevating agents. J Neurochem 1994;63:509-516.
91. Duman RS, Vaidya VA, Nibuya M, et al. Stress, antidepressant treatments, and neurotrophic factors: molecular and cellular mechanisms. Neuroscientist 1995;1:35-360.
92. Price LH, Malison RT, McDougle ChJ, Pelton GH. Antiglucocorticoids as treatments for depression. CNS Drugs 1996;5:311-3206.
93. Barden N. Modulation of glucocorticoid receptor gene expression by antidepressant drugs. Pharmacopsychiatry 1996;29:12-22.
94. Trullas R, Folio T, Young A, et al. 1-aminocyclopropanecarboxylates exhibit antidepressant and anxiolytic actions in animal models. Eur J Pharmacol 1991;203:379-85.
95. Paul IA, Trullas R, Skolnick P, Nowak G. Down-regulation of cortical b -adrenoceptors by chronic treatment with functional NMDA antagonists. Psychopharmacology 1992;106:285-7.
96. Skolnick P, Layer RT, Popik P, et al. Adaptation of N-Methyl-D-Aspartate (NMDA) receptors following antidepressant treatment: implications for the pharmacotherapy of depression. Pharmacopsychiatry 1996;29:23-6.
97. Nowak G, Ordway I, Paul IA. Alterations in the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor complex in the frontal cortex of suicide victims. Brain Res 1995;675:157-64.
98. Paul IA, Nowak G, Laayer RT, et al. Adaptation of the N-methyl-D-Aspartate receptor complex following chronic antidepressant treatments. Journal Pharmacol Exper Ther 1994;269:95-102.
99. Callaway E. Buprenorphine for depression: the un-adoptable orphan. Biol Psychiatry 1996;39:989-90.
100. Gibert-Rahola J, Tejedor Real P, Micó JA. Inhibidores del catabolismo de las encefalinas: una nueva perspectiva en el tratamiento de los trastornos afectivos. Psiquiatría Biol 1995;2:13-23.
101. Müller N, Ackenheil M. Psychoneuroimmunology and the cytokine action in the CNS: implications for psychiatric disorders. Prog Neuro Psychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 1998;22:1-33.
102. Alamo C, Cuenca E. ¿Avalancha de psicofármacos en la década del cerebro?. Arch Neurobiol 1995;58:337-9.
103. Alamo C, López-Muñoz F. Aspectos neurofarmacológicos de la dependencia a opiáceos. En: Valbuena A, Alamo C. Avances en toxicomanías y alcoholismo. Alcalá de Henares: Servicio de Publicaciones de la Universidad de Alcalá; 1996. p. 39-56.